The increasing reach of the internet, the rapid spread of mobile information, and the widespread use of social media, has led to the emergence of cyber violence against women and girls (VAWG) as a growing global problem with potentially significant economic and societal consequences.
Research by the World Health Organization shows that one in three women will have experienced a form of violence in her lifetime, and despite the relatively new and growing phenomenon of internet connectivity, it is estimated that one in ten women have already experienced a form of cyber violence since the age of 15. Access to the internet is fast becoming a necessity for economic well-being, and is increasingly viewed as a fundamental human right; therefore it is crucial to ensure that this digital public space is a safe and empowering place for everyone, including women and girls.
2022: Developing the conceptual framework
To date, cyber VAWG has not been fully conceptualised, defined or legislated against at EU level. In order to better understand the nature and prevalence of cyber VAWG, EIGE has conducted desk research that aimed to define certain harmful forms of cyber VAWG, identify and analyse existing research and gaps in research, assess the availability of survey and administrative data on the phenomenon, and identify relevant good practices in EU Member States.
Women and girls are more likely to be the targets of cyber violence (CVAWG) on digital platforms and, as a result, they experience significant physical, sexual and psychological distress and/or financial difficulties.
Reflecting the increasing incidence and impact of cyberviolence on women and girls across the EU, and in preparation for more sophisticated data collection, EIGE undertook two major projects related to cyberviolence in 2024.
In 2024, the Directive (EU) 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence (the VAW/DV directive) was adopted, a major development in understanding and tackling cyberviolence. The VAW/DV directive places on EU Member States a legal obligation to address and to collect statistics on all forms of cyber violence, including non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material, cyber stalking, cyber harassment and cyber incitement to hatred or violence. The VAW/DV directive also tasks the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) with supporting Member States with this process and with establishing common standards and data collection methods.
Methodological report on developing an EU measurement framework for combating cyber violence against women and girls
Data about cyberviolence from administrative sources presents challenges, as it is limited, uses diverse definitions and may not reflect actual rates of violence.
Greater insights can be found from survey data, a source that is consulted increasingly frequently.
The rapid evolution of ICT (e.g., generative AI) can lead to new and emerging forms of cyberviolence. Monitoring their growth and expansion, and keeping indicators updated, is essential to prevent and address CVAWG and to ensure that national and European laws keep pace with new challenges and risks.
Indicators
Eight key indicators were defined, from both survey and administrative data. The forms of violence in each indicator are defined and criminalised in the 2024 VAW/DV Directive: cyber stalking, cyber harassment, cyber incitement to hatred or violence, and non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material.
Indicator 1: cyber stalking (survey data): Proportion of the population who have been victims of stalking using ICT in the previous 12 months, by sex and age.
Indicator 2: cyber stalking (administrative data): Annual number of victims of stalking using ICT reported to the police
Indicator 3: cyber harassment (survey data): Proportion of the population who have been victims of harassment using ICT in the previous 12 months, by sex and age
Indicator 4: cyber harassment (administrative data): Annual number of victims of harassment using ICT reported to the police
Indicator 5: cyber incitement to hatred or violence (survey data): Proportion of the population who have been exposed to cyber incitement to hatred or violence on the basis of sex or gender identity using ICT in the previous 12 months, by sex and age.
Indicator 6: cyber incitement to hatred or violence (administrative data): Annual number of offences of incitement to hatred or violence committed using ICT reported to the police
Indicator 7: non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material (survey data): Proportion of the population who have been victims of non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material using ICT in the previous 12 months, by sex and age.
Indicator 8: non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material (administrative data): Annual number of victims of non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material using ICT reported to the police.
Policy brief on the role of digital platforms in tackling cyber violence against women and girls
This policy brief by the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) aims to support platforms by providing evidence-based actionable recommendations on how to strengthen their policies and practices to combat CVAWG.
What all digital platforms are doing
have core policies and regulations on general content moderation and continuously monitor and review moderation processes
provide generally clear information that is publicly available to users on reporting processes
have terms and conditions in place stating the agreement between the user and the platform and covering the platform’s expectations of the user in terms of conduct, privacy, platform rights and payment
provide general community guidelines or standards, which have been developed on a global basis in the main
all serious violations are reported by the platforms to the relevant state agencies
Key challenges and recommendations
What it means
Persistence of gender-neutral language and approaches in tackling different forms of violence on online platforms
Lack of reference to relevant national legislation or international women and/or human rights treaties on GBV, CVAWG and VAWG
Limited acknowledgement of gender-related and intersectional cyberviolence vulnerabilities
Recommendations
Incorporate a gender-sensitive approach into the creation of policies and moderation procedures, fostering a more inclusive environment and improving content moderation
Refer to significant legislative frameworks combating GBV and CVAWG, such as the Istanbul Convention and the VAW/DV directive, when developing and reviewing standards and trust and safety practices
Implement policies and follow-up procedures attuned to distinct types of CVAWG and acknowledge intersectional cyber violence vulnerabilities
What it means
Multiplicity of diverse definitions of CVAWG across platforms, hindering the comparability of data and giving rise to the fragmentation of data
Lack of homogeneity, hampering efforts to accurately measure CVAWG across jurisdictions and platforms and hampering the ability of users to report harmful behaviours
Recommendations
Aim to employ common, harmonised definitions of the different forms of CVAWG, referring to EIGE’s publications and the CVAWG measurement framework developed in line with the VAW/DV directive.
What it means
Unclear guidelines, standards and support related specifically to GBV, CVAWG and VAWG
Absence of sex-disaggregated data collection at the level of incidents moderated and investigated
Unavailability of harmonised standards to provide swift responses to users' reports
Lack of recognition that CVAWG crosses platforms and physical boundaries
Recommendations
Put in place user-friendly guidelines and mechanisms at the level of reporting and recording, tailored specifically to incidents of CVAWG. Ensure guidelines are language and context specific.
Provide for trust and safety policies and support that adequately acknowledge CVAWG and use clear and uniform terminology across platforms.
Design reporting systems to permit the collection of sex-disaggregated and other relevant data.
Recognise that violence crosses boundaries.
Facilitate the reporting of CVAWG that happens outside of the platform’s immediate scope.
React promptly and respond swiftly to reports of harmful content – for example, by immediately suspending potential offenders’ profiles and escalating the case to law enforcement where appropriate
What it means
Lack of clear and publicly available data on the reporting of GBV-related violations and behaviour and the outcomes of reporting
Insufficient willingness of platforms to engage in discussions with other relevant stakeholders about their safety standards and practices and their Al and ML developments
Adequate CVAWG training and support needed for human content moderators
Recommendations
Collaborate further with researchers and contribute data, thus providing greater public transparency when it comes to the reporting and follow-up of GBV-related behaviour and violations. Assist in the mapping of the various forms of online violence.
Continue to expand cross-platform cooperation. Exchange best practices on moderating CVAWG. Work together to use AI responsibly and adopt gender-sensitive moderation practices, and continue to create partnerships for tackling CVAWG.
Further train and support internal platform stakeholders, particularly human content moderators, as they play a crucial role in evaluating and addressing such cases. Acknowledge the burdens of this emotionally taxing job, continuing to invest in AI and ML to support moderation efforts and lessen the burden of viewing harmful content while ensuring the gender perspective is considered.
To understand CVAWG in the context of digital and social media platforms, two key policies are essential: the Digital Services Act (DSA), which regulates online intermediaries and platforms, now places increased responsibility on service providers to create a safer digital space for users. Secondly, Directive (EU) 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence (the VAW/DV directive) constitutes a significant legislative commitment to combating CVAWG, as it obliges Member States to act against specific forms of cyber violence crimes.
Research was conducted from April 2023 to March 2024. Publicly available documentation on 17 platforms was reviewed and analysed qualitatively through a gendered lens. Then a series of anonymised interviews took place with 10 platform representatives about moderation practices.